Effects of Prior Knowledge on the Generation Advantage: Calculators Versus Calculation to Learn Simple Multiplication

Elementary school children learned simple multiplication by generating (i.e., computing the answers) or reading (i.e., reading the answers from a calculator display). The children were given a pretest, read or generate training, a posttest, and a retention test after 2 weeks. Read training involved approximately half as much training time compared with generate training and was moderately effective. In terms of accuracy, generate training effectiveness depended on children's prior knowledge of multiplication. It was highly effective for low-knowledge children and ineffective for high-knowledge children. In terms of test time, read children showed a loss in efficiency after the 2-week delay compared with the generate children who showed no loss. The results are explained in terms of a procedural account of the generation advantage, and instructional applications are discussed.