Urbanization Affects Plant Flowering Phenology and Pollinator Community: Effects of Water Availability and Land Cover

Phenological changes (the timing of environment-influenced developmental events) associated with urbanization and global climate change have been observed worldwide for bird migration, amphibian reproduction, plant leafing and flowering, and arthropod appearance and development (Buyantuyev and Wu [2009]; Grimm et al. [2008]; Neil et al. [2010]; Neil and Wu [2006]; Walther et al. [2002]). For plants in particular, earlier and, to a lesser extent, later blooming of plants over time and within urban areas compared to rural areas have been reported in western Europe (Fitter and Fitter [2002]; Hepper [2003]; Mimet et al. [2009]; Roetzer et al. [2000]), China (Lu et al.[2006]), and North America (Primack et al.